'Frisian trade' - the role of the Frisians in early medieval trade

Early medieval trade cannot be discussed without the Frisians: the early medieval Frisians had such a large part in trade that the word ‘Frisiones’ in a charter from 829 - about the construction of the cathedral in Worms - was an equivalent for “long-distance merchant”! The so-called ‘Frisian trade’ - that will be discussed in this post - has its beginnings and origins in the North Sea culture of the seventh and early eighth centuries. However, this post will focus only on the peak of this trade in the ninth century. The North Sea culture will be discussed later in a separate post.

Long-distance trade

‘Frisian trade’ is a term that traditionally refers to the role of early medieval Frisians in long-distance trade and their role in it as middlemen. For a long time, the image existed that any Frisian with a ship could have been a possible (long-distance) trader, but this image has been adjusted: the long-distance trader was a specialist. There were many dangers and time involved in sailing long distances by sea, and not every Frisian could afford this risk, time or vessel. Certainly not in a predominantly agricultural society, as early medieval Frisian societies were in the ninth century. The perception that all Frisian areas participated in the ‘Frisian trade’ has also been adjusted: in reality, not all Frisian areas were equally involved in early medieval commerce, and the involvement of the different Frisian areas - and even of subdivided shires within them - fluctuated during the seventh to ninth centuries. For long-distance trade, the Frisian merchant used a seaworthy ship, such as a cog (see earlier post about ships), and mainly traded in luxury goods that were easily transportable in bulk. The goods they traded as middlemen came from four areas in particular:

1. Frankish hinterland: turntable pottery, wine, drinking glasses, natural stones (such as gems, grinding stones and whetstones) and weapons (sword blades).
2. Scandinavia: raw amber, whetstones, combs, furs and walrus ivory.
3. British Isles: slaves and whetstones.
4. Baltic countries and Eastern Europe: raw amber, furs, oriental fabrics (silk), spices (pepper) and possibly slaves.

Goods produced and exported by the Frisians themselves were the famous pallia Fresonica (Frisian cloth), linen, salt and stockfish, and possibly also turned woodwork, shoes, staghorn combs and hunting dogs.

Emporia

On their ships, early medieval Frisians sailed the almost at that time entire known world to trade these luxury products and their own goods in so-called emporia, or trade centres. Several names of eighth- and ninth-century emporia are known in Frisia, such as Walichrum and Scaltheim at the Scheldt estuary, Witla at the Maas estuary, Muiden at the mouth of the Utrechtse Vecht, and Medemblik and Stavoren on either side of the Vlie. Based on archaeological finds, it is suspected that an emporium was also located near Katwijk-Valkenburg on the Rhine estuary. Trade centres, like the ones above, were located at important junctions, such as river junctions and estuaries, and thus were often the gateways to a political area. For this reason, many emporia also often functioned as toll places, where tolls and fees could be levied on incoming goods and the berths of ships, among other things. The most important and largest emporium near Frisia was Dorestad (today's Wijk bij Duurstede in the Netherlands). This trading town is the only place described as vicus famosus (famous trade centre) in the Frankish Annals. The reason for the fame and success of Dorestad is its location at the junction between two spheres of influence, since it connected the Frankish hinterland - through Frisia - with Scandinavia and the Baltic countries. However, Dorestad's wealth also became its downfall: the trading town was plundered at least 16 times by Vikings. Despite this, Dorestad formed the centre of the commercial activities of the Frisians in the ninth century.

Frisian quartes

In some, important emporia outside Frisia, where early medieval Frisians often traded, they formed communities known as ‘colonies’. In the Annales Fuldenses, at the excerpt for the year 881, a considerable community of Frisians is mentioned at Birten, near the emporium of Xanten, in the German Rhineland. A similar colony of Frisians also existed in Cologne, Mainz and the aforementioned Worms. It is clear from the Vita sancti Liudgerii that a colony of Frisian merchants was established in the Anglo-Scandinavian trading town of Jorvik (York) in the seventh century. Of all the pottery uncovered at York, one-third is of Frisian-Frankish origin, suggesting that a Frisian community continued to reside in the English trading town during the eighth and ninth centuries as well. One of the most unusual emporia, however, is that of Kaupang in southern Norway: a house was found in this trading town which, on the basis of finds of Frisian-Frankish fibulae (brooches), among other things, is interpreted as a (temporary) home of a Frisian trader and his family. Apart from the find of this so-called “Frisian merchant's house”, Kaupang seems to have been influenced by Frisian trade as a whole due to the many other finds of Frisian-Frankish pottery and metalwork. Other emporia where Frisian trading colonies have been demonstrated include Hedeby (Germany), Ribe (Denmark), Birka (Sweden), Reric (= Groß Strömkendorf, Germany), and Aldeigjuborg, present-day Staraya Ladoga on Lake Ladoga in Russia.

Trade guilds

From the wide trade network of the Frisians, a variety of trade contacts and collaborations emerged. In particular, indications exist for Frisians and Scandinavians acting together in early trade guilds. The main evidence for this are two 11th-century runic stones from Sigtuna in Sweden. The runes have similar runic inscriptions, the longest of which reads as follows:

frisa kilter lety rista runar þesar eftiR alboþ fela ka sloþa kristr hin helgi hialba ant hans þurbiurn risti

The members of the guild of Frisians had these runes carved in memory of Albod, Slod's partner. May Christ the Holy help his soul. Torbjorn carved.

(transl. by author after N. IJssennagger).

According to the inscription, there were Frisian guilds in Scandinavia, giving the impression that (Friso-Scandinavian) trade was increasingly organised collectively towards the end of the Viking Age. In this light, the aforementioned indications of Frisian presence in Scandinavian emporia such as Kaupang, Jorvik and Aldeigjuborg may also point to joint cooperation in trade. There are also Scandinavian finds known in Frisia itself that may point to trade there, such as the silver bar from Warffum (Groningen) that shows key marks and approximates the weight of the Scandinavian standard measure øre (ca. 26 gr.). The find of a silver arm ring from Callantsoog with five smaller rings attached to it – which served as a wallet – might also indicate mutual trade between Scandinavians and Frisians.

Regional trade

However, of all the types of commerce the Frisians provided, the primary emphasis was on local and regional trade. After all, exchange within the own coastal area and the surrounding region provided the inhabitants with their basic needs. Wood, for example, was scarce in the terpen-region of Central- and East-Frisia, and had to be brought in from outside areas. Until the 10th century, the wood needed for the framework of sod houses, for instance, was supplied from surrounding wooded regions. In West-Frisia, wood was present in the forests of the dune regions and those on the riverbanks, but a partial supply of oak from, for example, the Vosges in France is not excluded for this region. Metals were also not available as raw material in the coastal areas. Iron was necessary for forging tools, weapons and other everyday utensils. The raw material was mainly supplied from the Saxon county of Hamaland, where raw iron was extracted from so-called clapperstones or marsh iron ore on the Veluwe and Montferland. Other goods traded locally included; wool, linen, salt, (sea) fish, cheese and butter, hides/leather, combs, wooden utensils (bowls, plates etc.), hand-formed pottery, honey and slaves.

The largest regional market in (the vicinity of) Frisia where these goods could be bought was also Dorestad. This emporium focused not only on transit trade of luxury goods, but also on local crafts. The demand for additional (raw materials for) craft items and food products in West-Frisia and the terpen-region provided an important outlet for local craftsmen and traders from Dorestad. Regional trade on a smaller scale, in the form of beach markets, also took place. Local traders in this case met at agreed, distinctive places in the landscape to trade.

Conclusion

The above post shows that the Frisians were the merchants par excellence in the early middle ages. Because of their participation and success in long-distance trade, the Frisian name was synonymous with “merchant from afar”. On their journeys to distant lands they entered into joint ventures, in which an early basis for later trading alliances may be found, such as the Hanseatic League. In the early middle ages, however, the long-distance merchant was a specialist. Many a Frisian was simply dependent on arable farming or animal husbandry for his or her livelihood. For this majority of the population, the heaviest emphasis was on local trade to provide them with basic needs and an outlet for their cottage industry side income. They were simply trying to make ends meet, and in this they were not so different from us today.